United States Constitution

The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. Ratified in 1788 and effective since March 4, 1789, it established the framework for the federal government and guaranteed certain rights to the people. The Constitution is the oldest written national constitution still in use and has influenced constitutional design around the world.

Background

After independence, the United States was governed by the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789). The Articles created a weak central government with limited powers, leading to economic difficulties, interstate disputes, and problems conducting foreign policy. These shortcomings prompted the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787.

Drafting and Ratification

The Constitutional Convention met from May to September 1787. Delegates debated issues such as representation, the powers of the federal government, and the balance between large and small states. The resulting document was signed on September 17, 1787, and sent to the states for ratification. It went into effect in 1789 after being ratified by the required nine states.

Structure

The Constitution consists of a preamble, seven articles, and twenty-seven amendments.

Preamble: Declares the purposes of the Constitution, beginning with the words “We the People…”
Articles I–III: Establish the three branches of government — legislative, executive, and judicial.
Articles IV–VII: Cover the states, amendment process, federal power, and ratification.
Amendments: Include the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, and later amendments addressing issues such as slavery, voting rights, and presidential succession.

Principles

The Constitution is built upon several fundamental principles:

Separation of powers: Division of authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Checks and balances: Each branch has powers that can limit the others.
Federalism: Division of power between the national government and the states.
Popular sovereignty: The authority of government comes from the people.
Limited government: Government power is restricted by law and rights.

Bill of Rights

Ratified in 1791, the first ten amendments guarantee freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to due process and trial by jury. The Bill of Rights was adopted to address concerns about individual liberty raised during ratification debates.

Later Amendments

Seventeen additional amendments have been added since 1791. Significant amendments include:

13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery.
14th Amendment (1868): Guaranteed equal protection under the law.
15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited voting restrictions based on race.
19th Amendment (1920): Granted women the right to vote.
26th Amendment (1971): Lowered the voting age to 18.

Judicial Interpretation

The Constitution is interpreted by the Supreme Court of the United States, which has the power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison (1803). Court rulings have shaped the meaning of constitutional provisions on civil rights, commerce, executive power, and individual freedoms.

Influence

The U.S. Constitution has served as a model for many countries around the world. Its principles of democracy, separation of powers, and protection of rights have inspired other constitutions and democratic movements.

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