United States Constitution

Foundational governing document of the United States

The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. It establishes the structure, powers, and limitations of the federal government and outlines the fundamental rights guaranteed to the American people. Ratified in 1788 and effective since March 4, 1789, it is the oldest written national constitution still in use.

The Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation, creating a stronger and more unified national government. It established three branches — the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial — each with distinct powers and built-in checks and balances.

Historical background

After the American Revolution, the newly independent states operated under the Articles of Confederation. This early system created a weak central government unable to:

levy taxes
regulate interstate commerce
enforce national laws
manage national defense effectively

Economic instability, interstate disputes, and uprisings such as Shays' Rebellion highlighted the need for reform.

In 1787, delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. Though originally tasked with revising the Articles, the delegates instead drafted a completely new governing framework — the Constitution.

Structure of the Constitution

The Constitution consists of a preamble, seven articles, and later amendments.

Preamble

The preamble outlines the document’s purpose, beginning with the famous words: “We the People of the United States…”

Articles I–VII

**Article I – Legislative Branch:** Establishes Congress, its powers, and lawmaking authority.
**Article II – Executive Branch:** Defines presidential powers, duties, and elections.
**Article III – Judicial Branch:** Creates the federal court system, including the Supreme Court.
**Article IV – States:** Addresses state relations and obligations.
**Article V – Amendments:** Describes how amendments may be proposed and ratified.
**Article VI – Supremacy Clause:** Declares the Constitution the supreme law of the land.
**Article VII – Ratification:** Outlines the process for the Constitution’s adoption.

Foundational principles

The Constitution incorporates several core principles designed to balance and limit power.

Separation of powers

Government authority is divided among three branches:

Legislative
Executive
Judicial

Each branch has its own roles and responsibilities.

Checks and balances

Each branch can limit the others, preventing any one from becoming too powerful. Examples include:

Presidential vetoes
Congressional oversight
Judicial review

Federalism

Power is shared between the national government and the individual states. Certain powers belong to the federal government, others to the states, and some are shared.

Popular sovereignty

The government derives its authority from the people, reflected in the phrase “We the People.”

Rule of law

No individual — including government officials — is above the law.

The Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were adopted in 1791. They safeguard personal liberties and limit government power.

**1st Amendment:** Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, petition
**2nd:** Right to bear arms
**3rd:** Protection from quartering soldiers
**4th:** Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures
**5th:** Due process, protection from self-incrimination
**6th:** Right to a fair trial
**7th:** Right to jury trial in civil cases
**8th:** No excessive bail or cruel punishments
**9th:** Protection of unenumerated rights
**10th:** Powers reserved to the states or the people

Later amendments

The Constitution has 27 amendments as of today. Significant categories include:

Civil War Amendments

**13th Amendment:** Abolished slavery
**14th:** Guaranteed equal protection and citizenship
**15th:** Prohibited racial discrimination in voting

Progressive Era Amendments

**16th:** Federal income tax
**17th:** Direct election of senators
**18th:** Prohibition
**19th:** Women’s suffrage

Voting rights expansions

**23rd:** Electoral votes for Washington, D.C.
**24th:** Abolished poll taxes
**26th:** Lowered voting age to 18

Governmental changes

**20th Amendment:** Adjusted presidential and congressional terms
**22nd:** Two-term limit for presidents
**25th:** Presidential succession and disability procedures

How amendments are added

Amendments require:

Two-thirds approval in both houses of Congress
- OR**
A constitutional convention called by two-thirds of states

Then ratification by **three-fourths of the states**.

Judicial interpretation

The meaning and application of the Constitution is continuously shaped by the Supreme Court of the United States. Key doctrines include:

judicial review
incorporation of rights through the 14th Amendment
interpretation of federal vs. state power

Famous cases include:

Marbury v. Madison
Brown v. Board of Education
Roe v. Wade / Dobbs v. Jackson

Legacy

The Constitution remains a cornerstone of democratic governance. Its durability reflects its combination of:

clear foundational principles
strong institutional design
ability to evolve through amendments and judicial interpretation

It has influenced the development of constitutions in nations around the world.

Notes

This article provides a concise and educational overview of the Constitution as the supreme law of the United States.